The 3 Ds

Deficit

-Robin Lackoff (1975)

-women use many techniques in their speech that are deficient to men's speech. These include:

• fillers
• hedges
• intensifiers
• hyper-correct grammar
• tag questions
• super-polite forms
• apologise more
• speak less frequently
• avoid coarse language or expletives
• indirect requests
• speak in italics

-Jenny Cheshire (1982)

-Boys use more non-standard forms than girls.

-Pamela Fishman (1983)

-Tag questions- Lackoff claimed they represent uncertainty, Fishman says they are used to initiate conversation

-She refers to setting the agenda as the 'conversational shitwork' and says men are reluctant to do this as they perceive to be the dominant role 

Dominance

-Zimmerman & West (1975)

-men dominate a conversation by using more interruptions

-Deborah Cameron (1995)

-challenges views, says that women do in fact challenge each other

Difference

-Deborah Tannen (1990)

-Men and women speak very differently in conversation, six contrasts to show this difference:

• Status vs. support
• independence vs. intimacy
• advice vs. understanding
• information vs. feelings
• orders vs. proposals
• conflict vs. compromise

-Janet Hyde (2005)

-proposed a 'gender similarities hypothesis'

-"substantially more similarities than differences...and where there are differences, they are due to other contextual factors for example education, occupation etc."

-argument