Children's writing

1. B.M. Kroll(1981)

 

Stage 1: Preparatory Stage

• Masters the basic motor skills needed to write
• Learns the basic principles of the spelling system

Stage 2: Consolidation Stage(Up to 6 years)

• Child writes in the same way as they speak
• Uses short declarative sentences which include mainly 'any' and conjunctions
• Incomplete sentences as they don't know how to finish the sentence off

Stage 3: Differentiation Stage(Up to 9 years)

•  Child becomes aware of the difference between speaking and writing
• Recognises the different styles available e.g. letter
• Makes lots of mistakes
• Uses writing guides and frameworks to structure work
• Writes to reflect thoughts and feelings

Stage 4: Integration Stage (12+)

• Child develops a personal style
• Child understands that you can change your style according to audience and purpose

2. Doctor Cathy Barclay (1996)

 

Stage 1: Scribbling stage

• Random marks on page
• writing and scribbling are accompanied by speaking

Stage 2: Mock Handwriting Stage

• Writing and drawings
• produce wavy lines
• cursive writing

Stage 3: Mock letters

• Letters are separate things

 Stage 4: Conventional letters

• Usually involves writing the name as the first word
• child usually puts letters on page but is able to read it as words

 Stage 5: invented spelling stage

• Child spells in the way they understand the word should be spelt - own way

Stage 6: Appropriate/ phonetic spelling stage

• Attach spelling with sounds

Stage 7: Correct spelling stage

• Able to spell most words

Year 4: http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/fass/projects/lever/PROJECTS/41/xf41/XF4105.HTM

• Phonetic/invented spelling 'magpiy' (magpie)
• Unclear writing
• Missed whole words
• Note form
• More pictures than words
• Repetition of 'this is'

Year 5: http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/fass/projects/lever/PROJECTS/51/LK51/LK5104X.JPG

• Simple sentences
• Lots of adjectives
• Commas
• Still some spelling mistakes

Year 6: http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/fass/projects/lever/PROJECTS/62/LK62/lk6203x.jpg

• Separate Paragraphs
• Wider variety of words
• More complex lexis e.g. 'throughout' 'autumn'
• Some misapplication of capital letters
• Possibly copied from source 'Bluebells carpet many beechwoods'

Imitation and reinforcement are the most crucial tools for children's language acquisition - evaluate.

It is clear that on various occasions within the transcript Tom imitates his mother’s use of language. At the beginning of the transcript Tom's mother models the standard noun phrase "dad's bike" by recasting his utterance "dad bike" and then, after the use of self-correction, Tom then proceeds to use the standard form "dad's bike" throughout the rest of the transcript. The importance of this intercommunication between child and caregiver is identified as the underlying principle for Jerome Bruner's interactionist theory in which he also describes how the caregiver will adapt and simplify their language in order to help the child learn. We can also identify this child directed speech (CDS) within the transcript as the mother’s length of utterance considerably decreases when she says “dad’s bike” and other instances where her primary purpose is to correct Tom’s language and aid his development. As mentioned, we can see that on this occasion this suggests that a successful way of learning language is through imitation, although we cannot see if Tom has continued to use the standard noun phrase “dad’s” in the future as it is likely that the child will have to be reminded several times before it is finally reinforced. 

Despite this there are also instances where imitation does not occur. Tom makes the virtuous error of saying “it make noises” leaving out the third person singular inflection on the verb which his mother then reformulates to the standard form  “makes”. However, unlike the previous example Tom does not imitate this and simply replies with “yeah”. Arguably this “yeah” could imply that Tom has understood although it is likely that because his mother has simply echoed his previous utterance (other that adding the ‘s’ sound) he may not recognise that this is reformulation and may simply think she is agreeing. We can question the importance of imitation in child language acquisition for this reason. If language is learnt purely through imitation, then why do children make grammatical errors such as these? Naom Chomsky presents the idea that children could not possibly learn from imitation alone, as ‘the language spoken around them is highly irregular and sometimes ungrammatical’. He also believes that rather than social causes playing the primary role in language acquisition, children are born with an innate ability to learn language called a language acquisition device or LAD. It could be argued that Tom’s use of “make” rather than “makes” supports Chomky’s theory as it clear that he has not learnt this purely form imitation alone. 

B.F. Skinner produced his behaviorist theory in which similarly to Bruner he believes children are ‘empty vessels’ in which language has to be ‘put into’. His theory consists of the idea that correct utterances are positively reinforced by a rewarding outcome and this therefore enhances the child’s language development.  Further on in the transcript Tom asks “is these drawing Cartoon Network cup of Tea Mum” which the mother then replies with “um (.) no (.) it’s a moving shadow mug (.) it looks like the Cartoon Network logo (.) but it’s actually something else”. At first, we may perceive this as negative, rather than positive reinforcement as she uses the negative participle “no” although she does go on to give him what he wanted by answering his question which in this case acts as his “reward”. This supports the idea that as well as imitation, reinforcement also plays a role within CLA. 

However, Positive reinforcement like all other theories has contradicting theories and/or refuting evidence. Tom asks his mother, “Is dat your talker” which his mother then replies with “my talker? Yeah (.) that’s a tape recorder” congratulating his heuristic understanding of what the tape recorder does. The use of the positive participle “yeah” however, may confuse the child into thinking that what he has said is correct blurring the fact that it is a correction to the standard noun ‘tape recorder’ rather than simply a synonym for ‘talker’. Introducing the idea that perhaps reinforcement may not be the most effective way to progress the child’s understanding of language. Unlike previous theories about imitation, reinforcement and the contradicting idea that nature plays a larger role, there are other arguably more important ways of learning. Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist introduced the idea that for children to actively learn language the role of social interaction alone is not enough. Together, Vygotsky and Bruner developed the concept of scaffolding whereby caregivers provide language strategies for learners that they can then use independently when the caregiver isn’t present. This seems like a more appropriate tool for children’s language acquisition, as the child does not then become reliant upon the caregiver always being there to correct their mistakes. 

It is clear that within the transcript and CLA that imitation and reinforcement play and important role although arguably they are not the most crucial tools and can be used alone. By looking at the transcript alone we cannot make any conclusions about these methods as we cannot see whether they have been effective or not in the future, we also cannot extrapolate the findings to every child as it is likely that everyone prefers to learn in different ways. 

Why is English so hard?

1. Defective orthography
English has a defective orthography meaning that the spelling of a word often has nothing/little to do with the pronunciation. This is often an issue for children learning to read(and write) as they are taught by letter- sound correspondence(synthetic phonics) but then they also must learn that the sound of a letter changes from word to word, for example the 'a' sound in 'hat' is pronounced differently than in 'hate'.




2. Irregular verbs
Children are often taught rules by adults to aid their understanding and be able to use them when they are not there, for example, 'to make a word past tense add 'ed'' however there are many exceptions to rules like these that often confuse children or people learning English. This rule applies to words like 'walk' and 'shout' but what about irregular verbs like 'hit' 'read' and 'think'. Children have to learn the rules but also when not to apply them.


3. The amount of words
English has a vast number of words – the biggest of any language, according to some scholars. It’s a particularly complex lexicon because it has many different roots and influences, including Old English and Latin, which means that there’s huge variety in how words are spelled.


4. Idioms and slang
As with most languages, spoken English tends to be more informal than written English, presenting further complexity for the student with the unenviable task of learning the language. Slang is yet another aspect of the language for learners to get to grips with, knowledge of which is necessary in order to understand informal conversation (a very basic example is “yeah”, which is slang for “yes”). English is also littered with idioms, which don’t always make sense to those learning English, but in order to speak English like a native speaker, a knowledge of idioms is essential. You’ll hear phrases such as “fat chance”, “turn a blind eye” and “call it a day” adding colour to everyday language, and it’s not just the phrases you need to learn, but their meanings and when it’s appropriate for you to use them.


5. There are so many silent letters
English has so many letters that aren't actually pronounced. “K”, such as “knife” or “knock”. There are also other silent letters at the beginning of words, such as the silent “H” at the beginning of “honour”, the “p” at the beginning of “psychology” or the “G” in “gnome”.


6. The order of the words
The difference between the right and wrong order is so subtle that it’s hard to explain beyond simply saying that it “just sounds right”. For example, we often use more than one adjective to describe a noun, but which order should they go in? We would say “an interesting little book” not “a little interesting book”. Both are technically grammatically correct, but the first “just sounds right”.


7. Homophones
English is full of homophones. E.g. 'A bandage is wound around a wound' 'the door was too close to the table to close' and 'I decided to desert my dessert in the desert'.




https://www.oxford-royale.co.uk/articles/efl-difficulties.html

How children learn to read

Who are the most popular children's authors and books? early years, infants and juniors. What makes them popular?


Puffin books

• Each Peach Pear Plum by Allan Ahlberg - I feel that the rhyming and pictures are what make this text so successful. Children will enjoy the read and are most likely to find it easier because of the rhyming patterns. There are also hidden details in each picture to keep the child entertained.
• The Snowman by Raymond Briggs  - I feel that the success of this book is down to the imagination it took to create and the amazing imagery that this book creates. Because of this Children will be able to imagine the scenery keeping them engaged in the book.
• The Very Hungry Caterpillar by Eric Carle - I feel that the interactive element of this book is what primarily attracts children, this also makes this book very memorable and widely recognised. It also helps children learn about numbers, days of the week and time in a fun and imaginative way.
• Where's Spot? by Eric Hill - Similarly to The Very Hungry Caterpillar I feel that the popularity of this book is down to the interactive element of lifting the flaps and finding and feeling as if they are finding spot themselves. It also teaches them about everyday objects.

• The Tiger Who Came to Tea by Judith Kerr - The combinations of colourful illustrations and an enjoyable story make this a memorable book
• Where the Wild Things Are - The somewhat 'naughty' child may humour the children and the imaginary magical wold with interest them.
• The Gruffalo by Julian Donaldson - similarly to Each Peach the rhyming text with entice children to continue reading and the funny and almost slightly scary story will make it very memorable to t he child.
• The Cat in the Hat by Dr Seuss
• Biff, Chip and Kipper by Roderick Hunt - Designed to aid children's language development, used in 80% of schools in the UK

How are children taught to read?


1. Synthetic phonics

• 'Phonics' involves teaching letter-sound correspondences. Children are then taught to 'synthesise' and put these sounds together to create words. Teachers will start of with single letter sounds (e.g. s,a,t,p,i,n) and then move on to those which involve 2 letters (E.g. oi, ou and ai) and so on.
• “Learning the letter sounds is merely the first step. The really important bit is to teach the children what to do with them. How to blend them together for reading and how to listen for them in a word to spell it. Start simply with CVC words [consonant vowel consonant words, such as cat, hat, hop] and gradually introduce longer and more complex words.”
• Irregular words such as those with origins from another language may be hard for the child to learn and may need other strategies to be able to learn these.

* Contradicting approach NLS 

• Dr Kevin Collins came up the the Primary National Strategy(NLS) for learning how to read. He said that children might use their phonic knowledge to 'get the first consonant' but they also need to use the context, maybe the picture and the evolving story.

2. Reading schemes

• Reading scheme books will be given to children in reception at varying stages. Some chose to do this right away, some after basic phonics have been learnt.
• There will also usually be a reading diary designed for teachers to let parents identify any difficulties that their child might be having with reading.
• Different schools have different schemes, some may let the child switch books whenever they please and some have strict policies that only the teacher can switch books on a certain day.

What sorts of 'miscues' (virtuous errors based on misapplication of reading skills) do young readers make?

• "Whole word errors"- mistaking a word for another "similar looking word" often sight words e.g. simple - smile, every - very
• "Word guessing errors" - children often only look at the first letter/few letters and then guess the word e.g. chart - chimp (read a book about a chimp so now says chimp for every word starting with 'ch'
• "Tracking errors"- The words they say often contain the same sounds but are out of order e.g. no - on, form - from, left - felt
• Blending error - noticeable 'choppy sounding' 
• Letter confusion - Typically with visually similar letters e.g. b, d and p

How should caregivers deal with mistakes?

• Some caregivers prefer to help children if they get stuck on a word where as others prefer to let them learn at their own speed and allow the child to solve their own problems.
• Many people believe it is a good idea to help sound out the word rather than just reading it for them. 

Bibliography
http://www.booktrust.org.uk/books/children/booklists/241/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Magic_Key
http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/08/14/reception-reading-how-your-child-will-learn-to-read-at-school-and-what-you-can-do-to-help-at-home_n_7331438.html
http://www.syntheticphonics.com/synthetic_phonics.htm
http://www.righttrackreading.com/errors.html

Quantified data

Go Girl	We love Pop	Shout
lip	lashes	matte
bold	cheek	liquefied
pouty	pout	Long wear
makeover	makeover	lip
eyelashes	Smokey eye	oil
cheek	lips	dupe
pout	lipstick	concealer
	shade	blending
	eyeshadow	brush
	makeup	natural
	beauty	lashes
	Smokey eye	beauty
	Skincare	lipstick
	falsies	brows
	brush	eyeshadow
	lippy	smoky
	mascara	sponge
	eyeliner	lippy
	foundation	base
	face	palette
	natural	concealer
	powder	foundation
	liner	cosmetics
	buff	shade
	eyeshadow
	crease
	blend
	fake
	wand
	bronzer
	cheeks
	forehead
	skin
	glow

Go Girl	We love Pop	Shout
Go Girl                                                        Dream big	Listen up dolls	Life goals
Smash it                                                            The futures bright so you gotta wear shades	My advice for you dear	Happy feels
Silver lining	Sassy	Pass the sass
See the best in everything	Feisty	Zoella speaks out!
Great attitude!	Straight talking	Fierce
Look forward	You tha(the) boss	Make sure it makes you happy
Inner star shine	Ignore the haters	Don’t let silly things steal your happiness
Positive energy!	Stay positive	Keep your positive pants on
optimistic	Going for gold	How to de-stress
ambitious	You’ll look bomb in this *	Got a problem?
bold	Indestructible	Be the best you!
Intelligent	Got a problem?	Don’t be afraid of being different!
inspiring	Guys like a successful lady!*	Positive vibes
Working harder	Positively GLOWING	Don’t forget how amazing you are
confident	Keep shining!	sassy
Independent		Good vibes
Full star potential		Laters to jealousy and HELLO to confidence!
Can aim for the stars!		Turn that frown upside down!
Out-glow anyone		Nobody is perfect
Look on the bright-side		Positive driving force
Positively radiant		Somebody else’s success doesn’t mean your failure
Self-confidence		Kiss those negative feelings goodbye
Good leaders		Focus on you!
Spotlight		You got this!
Grown-up		Beat the bullies!
Shimmer and shine		Inspiration
Futures bright!		Encourage
Mega stand-out		Support
Look good, feel good		Your power
Be yourself		Its normal to feel nervous
Amazing career		Don’t let others influence your decisions
Super strong new you!		She needed a hero so that’s what she became
Just go for it		They can’t break you

Go Girl	We love Pop	Shout
cute	gorge	cool
radiant	amaze	awesome
vibrant	awesome	beautiful
ADORBS! (adorable)	Deeelish (delicious)	great
cutest	cutest	amazing
fab	cool	good
perfect	glam	perfect
fabarooni	sassy	lovely
fabulous	cute	good
exciting	charismatic	Cayutest (cutest)
pretty	pretty	sweet
sweet	sweet	gorgeous
gorgeous	fancy	cute
	gorgeous	pretty
	perfect	adorable
	lovely	Gorge (gorgeous)
	chic
	lush